Such foreign domination was not only a blow to the pride of Muslims, but threatened the very
foundations of Islam, as European rulers replaced traditional Muslim educational, legal, and
governmental institutions with Western ones. Europeans undermined the religious ethos of their
colonies, foisting secular and materialistic culture upon them, and encouraging ethnic and national
divisions in the ummah. In the late 19th century, independence movements arose in many Muslim
countries, inspired to varying degrees by both the revival of Islamic principles and institutions and by
Western-style nationalism
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